Molecular Archaeology

Different methods have been utilise and argon cosmos used in the synopsis of archeologic data. Among some former(a)s, different archaeometric worlds much(prenominal) as paleoecology (paleozoology, paleobotany and pllen compend), dating methods (radiocarbon-dating and dendrochronology) and analytical chemistry had been used for the military rank of the quantity and quality of different archaeological substances (Kiesslich, n.d.). Given the record of archaeology, evaluated data argon analyzed on the point of view of history.The late discoveries in science itemly in genetics and molecular(a) biological science have given rise to a nonher method of scientific abridgment of archaeological data. The new developments allow easier probe of ancient remains not alone through with(predicate) paleoecology, dating and chemical substance methods just on a molecular level. This new branch of archaeological analysis is what is now cognise as molecular(a) Archaeology.Christianson ( 2007) of the Minnesota State University gives a to a greater extent unambiguous description of the field. According to him, Molecular Archaeology is an emergent field in archaeology that has been brought about by the advancements of the recognition and understanding of desoxyribonucleic acid, foc utilise on the acquisition of either deoxyribonucleic acid or mtdesoxyribonucleic acid (mitochondrial DNA) and being able to teach species of essential archaeological finds as well as determine farm animal lines and/or sex of animal or human remains.It is this use of the DNA in the analysis of archaeological data that differentiates Molecular Archaeology from the some new(prenominal) methods of archaeological analysis. It is the biological function of this DNA that makes molecular archaeology an unexpendable field in analytical archaeology. This DNA takes genetic tuition which, formerly known, could provide special breeding about the singular(a) properties of the probe (Christ ianson, 2007). These various(prenominal) properties include ones species, population, and sexual urge. Also, Through the use of DNA residues, accuracy in reconstructing subsistence and link up cultural activities is to a greater extent probably. As a result, we gain more fellowship and understanding of the lives of our ancestors and the environment they lived in as well as of the other creatures that coexisted with them (Christianson, 2007). on that point was a time when molecular archaeology seemed to be inconceivable. This was when scientists believed that DNA-preservation was unrealistic in biological remains. Previous studies have shown that it only overlyk days or rase hours for degradation to occur after(prenominal) the death of an individual. With degradation, of course, is the loss of momentous genetic instruction (Keisslich, n.d.).It is one atomic number 18a in the early eighties defied this scientists limiting belief on the relationship surrounded by degrada tion and DNA-preservation and paved the way for molecular archaeology and the use of DNA in the analysis of archaeological data. This is the successful detection of intact genetic selective information in a 4000-year-old Egyptian mummy (Kiesslich, n.d.)Furthermore, the invention of analytical methods in molecular biology boosted the field of molecular archaeology. In 1988, Mullis and Saiki published a study on Primer-directed enzymatic expansion of DNA with a ther nighable DNA polym date of referencese. Practically, they invented the PCR or the Polymerase Chain Reaction technique which made likely the detection and painting of even minimal wraiths of DNA. In theory, the presence of even a bingle intact molecule of DNA can buoy give a haughty result (Kiesslich, n.d.)The impact of molecular archaeology particularly its use of DNA in evaluating data has been proven to be a great springtime in archaeological research. Because DNA is a huge formula of molecular archaeology, it is necessity even for the general studies of this subject to include information on the genius of the DNA.DNA is a helically-twisted macromolecule consisting of a sugar-phosphate backbone. individually sugar in the DNAs sugar-phosphate backbone is bound to one side-chain which may be different for each building block. It is this side-chain that represents a single basic unit of DNA or DNA-base. It is the connection between a few to some(prenominal) billions of base-pairs connected by one polymer unit that produces a double helix, particular to the DNA. (Kiesslich, n.d.)The function of the DNA is mainly the maintenance and passing of genetic information from parent to progeny. This genetic information is encoded in 4 different letter (A, C, G, T) which represent the bases or the basic units. Three of the letters together turn back to the next superior information unit (Kiesslich, n.d.)The DNA not only functions for the maintenance and passing of genetic information but also fo r the subdue of the biological functions of each cell. For living organisms, it is located in the nucleus of the cells and in small cellular compartments called mitochondria. This mitochondria are considered as the powerhouses of the cell because it provide for the push needed for cellular processes. Like nuclear DNA, mitochondrial DNA has their own chromosomes. In general, a cell contains only twain copies of nuclear DNA and as much as a thousand copies of mitochondrial DNA (Kiesslich, n.d.).What is crucial to the nature of the DNA is the sequence of its 4 discriminable bases or the base-sequence. It is this base-sequence that represents the genetic information passed on from parent to progeny and controls the cellular chemical reactions. It is this sequence that is the targeted information in the analysis of archaeological facts and this sequence can only be determine through the application of methods in molecular biology (Kiesslich, n.d.). selective information given by an individuals DNA is not limited to the individual but also to pathogens which include microorganisms and bacteria, as well as biological temporals and the forage of a settlement (Kiesslich, n.d.). DNA of microorganisms and bacteria can be determined through paleopathology and paleoepidemiology. DNA of biological material can be determined through paleoecology, paleobotany and paleozoology.An extracted intact DNA would give the intact genetic information of an individual. This genetic information can be accessed employ different sequence-specific DNA probes which also provide information beard for archaeological analysis (Kiesslich, n.d.)There is a difference between the extraction of DNA from the nucleus and DNA from the mitochondria. Note that DNA from the nucleus persists only as two copies for every cell while mitochondrial DNA persists at an come of a few thousand copies per cell. Nuclear DNA and mitochondrial DNA require a minimum state of preservation to obtain the specif ic sequence information. The greater quantity of mitochondrial DNA allows it to be more quick accessible compared to nuclear DNA. It is also more resistant to degradation processes after death as well as diaganetic influences compared to nuclear DNA (Kiesslich, n.d.).The two types of DNA are different in the types of information that can be obtained. In nuclear DNA, information about an individuals genetic constitution can be obtained. This includes the individuals species, gender, fingerprint and family relationship with other individuals. Meanwhile, the mitochondrial DNA provides information that allows the mind of maternal lineage within a community. This is because mitochondrial DNA is exclusively motherly hereditary. The mitorchondrial DNAs comparatively slow mutational rate also allows greater evaluation of genetic context for individuals. In effect, individuals can be classified through middle and spacious- undulate temporal classification (Kiesslich, n.d.).Using informa tion on the X and Y chromosomes, gender can be determined easy using molecular biological methods (Faerman and Filon, 2005). As it is known, gender is one of the most significant features of an individual and is likewise significant in archaeological analysis. Among other parts, gender can be and is usually determined using the teething and the bones (Kiesslich, n.d.). excite-specific genes are located in the X and Y chromosomes.Still, the aim of gender is not limited to molecular biological means. The aspiration of the gender of an individual remains can be done through stuffy methods including morphometry. This happens when convenience is not the issue but the quality of the sample itself when it is too damaged or when the remains that are analyzed belonged to an infant. As a rule, a few grams of bone or tooth is enough for DNA-analysis (Kiesslich, n.d.).Gender determination through DNA-analysis can be exemplified by the study done in South Israel, at a bathroom house at a burial site of Roman Askalon. It must be noted that in Ancient Askalon infanticide was a widespread phenomenon (The Advent of Molecular Archaeology, 2005).Behind the bath house, archaeologists fix more than 100 gaunt remains of infants which at world-class were thought as the remains of throwaway(prenominal) girls. The epigraph stating Enter, Enjoy and and the several lamps with sexy motifs gave rise to a theory which was confirmed using DNA-analysis. Through gender determination by DNA-analysis, it was found out that the skeletal remains that were found did not only belong to unwanted girls but also to unwanted boys. The bath house was confirmed to be a brothel and the skeletal remains were the infants of the women who used to work at the place (Kiesslich, n.d.).Meanwhile, the issue on whether or not tuberculosis was brought to Peru by Columbus and his successors was clarified using DNA analysis. One study reported that the DNA of tuberculosis pathogens already existed even am ong 600-900-year-old Peruvian mummies (Kiesslich, n.d.).Nuclear DNA-analysis is also used in the appointment of remains. In history, the remains of Josef Mengele in Brazil as well as the identification of the remains of the Romanov family in Jekatrinenburg after the Bolshevik Revolution were place using DNA-fingerprinting (Kiesslich, n.d.).The analysis of organic residues in some jars found in Egyptian Amphorae allowed the discovery of what commodities were transported to Egypt during the Late Bronze Age and the links between the artificial lakes of the jars, the commodities and the way of transport of substances in the Mediterranean world (Stern, 2001).Mitochondrial DNA analysis was used in the investigation of the Tyrolean Ice-man (The Advent of Molecular Archaeology, 2005). The findings of the investigation revealed a high DNA-sequence homology to todays population in the Northern alps (Kiesslich, n.d.) and showed a great fit to the Northern European context. In this case, clo thes and tools associated with the findings were also investigated aside from the individual ashes, giving an idea on vegetation during the era (Kiesslich, n.d.).DNA-analysis also covers topics historical and anthropological topics particularly population-genetics. Population-genetics include the tracing of migrations and distributions of populations. For example, kinship analysis was done with some individuals in Forida (Kiesslich, n.d.). DNA-analysis can also be used to trace genealogical origins and also in the determination of possible threats of diseases from ancestors.Source materials for DNA-analysis are not limited to bones and teeth. As a matter of fact, anything that could possibly contain DNA, even if not part of the individuals body can be a source material. Source materials can range from biological remains such as skeletons, bodies, bones, hair, teeth, forensic and medical preparations, museum specimens, fossils and objects that an individual has come in contact with (Kiesslich, n.d.).It must be remembered that DNA-analysis is a function which involves the destruction of the specimen. This implies that once a specimen has been used for analysis, it cannot be reused. On the other hand, even small amounts of materials, say, a piece of hair or a gram of bone is enough for any DNA-analysis as long as the specimen is of quality, depending on the sources chemical, physical, geological, ecological and biological history (Kiesslich, n.d.).A DNA can be expected to be intact and healthy if it has been maintained at low-temperatures such as the case of the Tyrolean Ice-man, or if it has been maintained in arid places. As a rule, DNA-degradation happens under humid conditions so specimens coming from deserts, and in polar regions or any other setting with similar conditions would produce more intact DNA specimens and more successful DNA analysis. Other conserving factors include anaerobic conditions such as that in Florida during the kinship analysis and the quantity of possible DNA specimens such in mummies (Kiesslich, n.d.).The less a specimen is affected by diagenetic processes, the more intact and well-preserved it will be when used for DNA-analysis. This is the reason why teeth and bones are commonly used for DNA-analysis. Their structure, and rigidity as well as the little hollow spaces with single cells, which undergo individual post-mortem mummification (Kiesslich, n.d.).In addition, these specimens are less affected by natural contamination during the life of the individual as well as post-mortem contaminations. coeval contaminations in the specimens can also be easily removed forwards extracting the DNA. As noted earlier, teeth and bones are suitable material sources for the determination of gender and for any other DNA-analysis (Kiesslich, n.d.).In molecular archaeology as well as in any other field that require genetic analysis, collection of samples and pre-treatment require maximum precautions. This is to prevent c ontemporaneous errors which are possible sources of errors. Errors are especially crucial in DNA-analysis since specimens are not infinite (Kiesslich, n.d.).One simple precaution is to wear gloves and safety-masks. Also, tools and containers that will be used in the analysis should be sterile and assoil from other DNA contaminants. It must also be remembered that probing of specimens should be done directly at the excavation site, sealed and only receptive until it get to the laboratory. All these should be obligatory to prevent contamination and thus, errors (Kiesslich, n.d.)There are many physical processs for the extraction of DNA from material sources. Naturally, speciments are cleaned depression to remove physical contaminants such as soil and dirt. Specimens are hence homogenized and placed in an extraction buffer. This extraction buffer contains compounds that are necessary for the breaking of the source-matrix. The breaking of the source matrix is done by decalcificatio n or and proteinase-digestion. The end product is the extracted solubilized DNA (Kiesslich, n.d.).Similar to extraction, isolation and finish are also done through different procedures. Before doing the process, the chemical and physical conditions of the source material must first be evaluated. This is other preventive procedure to minimize errors from contaminants. Once the DNA in the source material has been purified and contained in an aqueous solution, substances that are co-extracted with the DNA including humic acids and other chemicals which have similar properties with the DNA must be removed to rescind false negatives in PCR reactions. These co-extrants could also inhibit enzymatic reactions (Kiesslich, n.d.).The most ruling tool for the investigation of DNA is the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) because of its sensitivity which allows even a single intact DNA enough for detection. The PCR is an amplification procedure that is sequence specific. Here, sequence specific DNA probes are added to reactions considering reaction parameters necessary for the process.Through this, the target sequence is amplified until detectable amounts are obtained. However, pass on care must be done in order to repress contamination, particularly contemporary ones. Contemporary contaminants are better preserved in the PCR. To manage this, blank extracts and zero-controls must be done for every extraction. In sum, controls are necessary to for the verification of the authenticity of the results and in order to trace possible contaminations that are present (Kiesslich, n.d.).Zero-controls are PCR-reactions which do not contain the DNA being analyzed (Kiesslich, n.d.). They are blank extracts which contain everything that is needful for the reaction used in the DNA-analysis such as solutions and buffers. In the equivalent way as the source material, these controls undergo the same extraction steps.lots has been transformed by the discovery of DNA. In the past, archae ological investigations may be limited to the physical level. Today, it has reached the era when Archaeology intersects with Molecular Biology. There are still lots of evidences to discover. history is still filled with gaps. With the advent of Molecular Archaeology, strands may just be made and gaps may just be filled.ReferencesChristianson, B. (2007). Molecular Archaeology. Minnesota State University. Retrieved 23 October 2007 from http//www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/archaeology/archaeology/moleculararchaeology.html.Faerman, M., D. Filon, et al. (1995). Sex identification of archaeological human remains based on amplification of the X and Y amelogenin alleles. Gene, 167, (1-2) 327-32.Kiesslich, J. (n.d.). The Emerging Field of Molecular Archaeology. Retrieved 23 OctoberSaiki, R. K., D. H. Gelfand, et al. (1988). Primer-directed enzymatic amplification of DNA with a thermostable DNA polymerase. Science, 239, (4839) 487-91.Stern, B. (2001). Organic Residues in Egyptian Amphorae. University o f Bradford. Retrieved 23 October 2007 from http//www.brad.ac.uk/acad/archsci/depart/resgrp/molarch/egypt.html.The Advent of Molecular Archaeology. (2005). Retrieved 23 October 2007 from http//humanitieslab.stanford.edu/2/184.